This dossier gathers evidence on sesame oil production in the Ur III period according to sources from the Umma [geogr=Umma]province. In particular, the attestation of various basket boxes, winnowing trays, sieves and mats, and reed bundles (very likely as fuel), refers to the treatment of sesame seeds before storing or further processing. The milling process was carried out by women that received monthly barley allocations and whose work time was monitored in detail. The yield of sesame oil production in Umma amounted to ca. 22-27 %_vol.

1. Terminology

The production of sesame oil from its seeds is expressed by the verb sur [glossary=sur] “to perform an action from which a liquid product results” (Civil 1964: 81 see also ṣaḫātum[glossary=ṣaḫātum] and Dossier A.1.1.22 on the terminology for the milling of sesame oil in the Old Babylonian period). Sesame, in association with the term nig2-sur[glossary=nig2-sur] “output”, refers to an obligation that has nothing to do with oil production (see Dossier A.1.1.05 § 4).

2. Tools

Explicit information on the production of sesame oil comes from two documents listing a series of tools as “commodities for milling sesame” (niĝ2-dab5 ĝeš-i3 sur-sur[glossary=niĝ2-dab5 ĝeš-i3 sur]; Santag 6 041 o. iii 3-8, Šu.41.00.00; YOS 15 190 o. iv 1′-6′, […].[…].[…]). Both texts list various wooden, reed and leather objects either with their recipients („PN took over“ PN i3-dab5) and their destination („to ON“ ON-še3) and/or a specific group of personnel or purpose (e.g. Santag 6 041 o. iv 1 „commodities for flour from roasted barley“  niĝ2-dab5 zi3 še sa-a-ka). Though, neither of the texts registers the recipient of the tools for milling sesame oil nor specifies more details on their nature. The subscript of YOS 15 190 is not preserved, and therefore we lack more details on the context of this transaction. The subscript of Santag 6 041 indicates that the enlisted wooden, leather and reed objects were „expended in Umma“ (zi-ga ša3 Umma^ki) by Seskala; Lugalizim sealed the receipt, probably the scribe and temple administrator in Umma who sometimes functioned as an underling of the tax collector in Umma (Ouyang 2013: 53-54 fn. 93).

The tools for milling sesame oil included a „basket box“ (^gebešeĝ[glossary=^gebešeĝ]), a „winnowing tray“ (^gebu_x-bu_x[glossary=^gebu_x-bu_x]), various types of „sieves“ (ma-an-sim[glossary=ma-an-sim] „sieve“), a „reed mat“ (^gemuru12[glossary=^gemuru12]) as well as a „braided taḫabaštum-container coated with bitumen” (^geda-ḫa-ba-aš2-tum[glossary=^geda-ḫa-ba-aš2-tum] esir2 su-ba), see Waetzoldt 1985: 81. They very likely served for the collection of sesame seeds after harvest and their preparation for milling. The following table illustrates the tools attested in the administrative texts from Umma (and Ĝirsu) concerning the processing of sesame seeds.

This complements very well the evidence of saddle querns and mills, mortars and pestles documented in the sesame oil mill of Irisaĝrig [geogr=Irisaĝrig](CUSAS 40/2 0428; see Dossier A.1.1.12 § 5). Moreover, a text dated to month VI/September records „basket weavers“ (adgub) deployed „to braid“ (sur-de3) „reed posts“ (^gegilim) for „oil bottles“ (saman4[glossary=saman4]) (CUSAS 39 154, Šu.36.06.00).

The production of sesame oil (“to mill sesame” ĝeš-i3 sur-de3[glossary=ĝeš-i3 sur]) required also reed bundles (sa ge), 70 to 300 bundles are attested (Umma 075, 0000.06.00; MVN 13 164, ŠS.04.06.00). Since reeds were usually employed as fuel, they were probably used for heating here as well. In the process of obtaining oil from sesame seeds, fire is possibly required in the process of dehulling sesame seeds (Bedigian 2010: 325). This treatment was reserved for a minimal quantity of sesame seeds that enabled the production of an exceptional sesame oil (Dossier A.1.1.08 and para10 aka[glossary=para10 aka]). According to ethnographic sources, fuel is also used for parching the seeds before pounding them or for steaming the pounded sesame before milling it (Bedigian 2010: 16-22; 314; 383). However, these procedures would have required installations like large roasting pans or steamers that are hitherto not attested among the archaeological evidence of Mesopotamian workshops in the Early Bronze Age.

Sesame oil was then stored in „jars“ (dug[glossary=dug]) closed by leather wraps (UTI 4 2786, AS.09.00.00; BPOA 1 1087, ŠS.02.00.00).

3. Yield

The yield of sesame oil production in Umma amounted to approx. 22 to 27 % of the volume of processed seeds (or 29-36 % of their weight). This yield is slightly higher than the 20%_vol documented by sources from the Ĝirsu province (see Dossier A.1.1.08). The following table summarizes the data on yields.

One text of unknown provenance documents a yield of 25%_vol according to the registered milling rate of „75 (sila of sesame oil) per (gur of sesame seeds)“ (75-ta) (MVN 01 208, […].00.00); see also the yield of 20-22 % mentioned by Waetzoldt 1985: 81. The yield of modern sesame oil production can nowadays vary from 40 to 68 % of the volume of processed sesame depending on the milling method and the quality of seeds: 40-48 % in modern China, 68 % in modern Iran, 45-60 % by cold processing (Bedigian 2010: 294, 325, 461).

„Sesame oil cakes“ (tuḫ ĝeš-i3[glossary=tuḫ ĝeš-i3]) were distributed as food to various types of workers, among them men, women and children  (e.g. MVN 05 055, AS.06.00.00; Princeton 1 319, ŠS.02.00.00; SAT 3 1692, ŠS.06.00.00; CUSAS 3 0438, ŠS.07.07.00).

4. Sesame oil from „dehulled, hulled“ sesame seeds

Apart from the standard sesame oil, also the special variety of sesame oil (i3-ĝeš para10 aka[glossary=para10 aka]), „sesame oil made from dehulled seeds“ is attested in Umma as an ingredient for the manufacturing of aromatized oils (e. g. SAT 3 1445) and for princesses (AAICAB 1/1, Ashm. 1912-1142). For a more detailed discussion of this variety of oil, see Dossier A.1.1.08, Dossier A.1.1.22, and the terms para10 aka[glossary=para10 aka] and para10 a5[glossary=para10 a5].

5. Sesame oil milling women

Sesame oil was produced by „female workers for milling sesame“ (geme2 ĝeš-i3 sur(-sur)-ra[glossary=geme2 ĝeš-i3 sur]), who often appear in records documenting the work time of various types of female workers. In particular, the „balanced account on women’s work of Ludiĝira, scribe of flour“ (niĝ2-ka9-aka a2 geme2 lu2-diĝir-ra dub-sar zi3-da) documents the work days of the women deployed in the production of flour in the year Amar-Suena 4 (STA 02, AS.04.00.00). Among them a group women was released from their regular task and instead deployed for the milling of sesame for a total of 640 work days (see table 3 below). Another „balanced account on women’s work of Lukala“ (niĝ2-ka9-aka a2 geme2 lu2-kal-la) documents the work days of women during the year Amar-Suena 05. The largest figures regard the „work (days) for milling flour“ (a2 zi3 ar3-ra), but again a group of women were released from their regular task to mill sesame for oil production for a total of 360 work days (MVN 21 201, AS.05.00.00). In both balanced accounts, Ur-Sulpae [individual=Ur-Sulpae] sealed the account of the „sesame oil-milling women“ (geme2 ĝeš-i3 sur(-sur)-ra).

Unfortunately, the accounts do not indicate the total time during which sesame oil was produced. Hence we cannot estimate the minimum number of women employed in this task. Nevertheless, we can acknowledge that sesame milling was performed by the same women who normally milled flour. Therefore the production of sesame oil did not evidently require a highly specialized workforce, confirming the conclusions drawn from the equipment of the sesame oil mill in Irisaĝrig (Dossier A.1.1.12) or the tool lists from Umma (see above § 1) or Ĝirsu (Dossier A.1.1.08): the two fields of expertise, the milling of cereals and the milling of sesame oil shared a great deal of technological knowledge.

According to a list of “women from various shrines” (geme2 eš3 didli), in the year Šulgi 28, female workers joined the workforce of various temples in Umma as dedication (a-ru-a) that was performed by various individuals. The list also documents their monthly allocations in barley and wool (AAICAB 1/1 Ashm. 1911-229; for similar lists in Ĝirsu, see Feliu/Millet Albá 2013). The female workforce included 53 „female weavers“ (geme2 uš-bar), 16 „menial female millers“ (geme2 kin2-kin2 uĝ3-ga6 ) and 21 „sesame oil-milling women“ (geme2 še-ĝeš-i3 sur-sur-ra[glossary=geme2 še-ĝeš-i3 sur]) (AAICAB 1/1 Ashm. 1911-229, Šu.28.08.00). Latter group featured following individuals:

According to another document, a woman was deployed in month VII/October for „having milled sesame“ (ĝeš-i3 sur-ra, YOS 04 195, ŠS.06.00.00).