1. Sources, Terminology and Metrology
While “tallow” (i3-udu[glossary=i3-udu]: OIP 104 014) and “lard” (i3-šaḫ2[glossary=i3-šaḫ2]: WF 138) are attested only once, the administrative texts dated in the Fāra period (26th c. BCE) document almost exclusively the use of milk fat. In this respect, the sources about dairy products stem from the city of Šuruppak [geogr=Šuruppak](modern Fāra), located about 45 km southeast of Nippur and about 50 km northwest of Uruk (Bauer/Englund/Krebernik 1998: 238).
The almost 1000 administrative records recovered at Fāra during both official and illicit excavations in early 1900 to 1930ies cover a wide range of economic activities organized around at least two principal administrative units, “the palace” (e2-gal) and “the city” (e2-uru) (Bauer/Englund/Krebernik 1998: 244-253, 312; Martin/Pomponio/Visicato/Westenholz 2001: 3-16, 115). While the various economic activities ultimately fell under “the palace’s” (e2-gal) control, their final organization was carried out by “the city“ (e2-uru), which included various crafts, husbandry, fishing, and boats (Martin/Pomponio/Visicato/Westenholz 2001: 115). Husbandry was also carried out by the main temples of Šuruppak, namely those of Sud, Gibil and Kinnir (Martin/Pomponio/Visicato/Westenholz 2001: 115).
As in the later Presargonic period, dairy management centred on the two main products, “butter” (i3-nun) and “sour milk cheese” (ga’ara[glossary=ga’ara]) (Dossier A.2.1.06). However, the available sources do not allow us to determine a standard relationship between the quantities of these two main products, as is the case for later periods. Only in two cases can we establish a relation between butter and cheese quantities for the Fāra period: 1:3 (FTP 104 o. i 4’-5’) and 4:1 (FTP 102 r. ii 1-3). In Šuruppak, the word for “butter” is i3-nun[glossary=i3-nun], literally “princely oil, fat”, or is abbreviated as i3 “oil, fat” (e.g., FTP 104 o. i 4’). The word for “sour milk cheese” is ga’ara, which is written with the sign LAK-490.
The dairy products were measured in Šuruppak both according to the capacity system and in discrete units of specific vessels or measures. In particular, the capacity system used for dairies is based on the unit gur/lidga, which corresponds to 240 sila/litres and is written with the common numerals, whereby bariga amounts are sometimes adopted beyond the next higher unit of measurement (e.g., WF 141; Bauer/Englund/Krebernik 1998: 305; Martin/Pomponio/Visicato/Westenholz 2001: 125-127). In addition, entries recording discrete units of “butter” (i3-nun), “sour milk cheese” (ga’ara) and/or “milk” (ga[glossary=ga]) refer to sexagesimal counts of sila/litre (sila3), although the latter is not always explicitly written (e.g., WF 140, FTP 102; Englund 2002: 129 ad pp. 84ff; Martin/Pomponio/Visicato/Westenholz 2001: 841Note that according to Martin et al. (2001: 84, 126) the ⅖ and ⅗ fractions of the sila were also allegedly used to measure butter. This assumption is, however, based on a misinterpretation of the numerals in the text FTP 105 (106 is to be amended as 105 due to the mix-up of the cross-references in the final editorial process of the book, Englund 2002: 127, 130): e.g., o. i 4 reads 3.3.0 instead of 3 ⅗. Moreover, the sign ul is neither attested in FTP 105 nor FTP 106 according to the available pictures in CDLI, respectively P222172 and P222173.). “Sour milk cheese” (ga’ara) is also counted in discrete units of niĝ2-du3-(a) (e.g., FTP 102), a measure used until the later Presargonic period mostly for fruits and cheese 2According to Martin et al. (2001: 85 ad o. ii 2) the use of the niĝdu-measure for cheese would suggest that this cheese (ga’ara) was “solid, whereas the cheeses measured in ni-ga were, presumably, liquid or semi-liquid”. This assumption is, however, contradicted by the text FTP 102, according to which the very same “sour milk cheese” (ga’ara) is measured in discrete units of niĝ2-du3 (o. ii 2) as well as in sila/litres (r. ii 3) and hence cannot correspondingly feature a different state, liquid or solid..
The available sources on dairy products from Šuruppak do not explicitly indicate the nature of the processed milk, nor do they document exact delivery quotas expected from a specific number and type of animal, as is the case in the later Presargonic and Ur III periods. Nevertheless, the deliveries of dairy products come from both “flock masters” (na-gada, e.g., FTP 100) and “cow herders” (unu3, e.g., WF 141), suggesting that the milk was very likely provided by both cattle and caprines. Regarding small cattle, the available sources do not allow us to determine if dairies were processed from goats, sheep, or both, as was the case in archaic Uruk (A.2.1.08).
2. The Delivery Records of Dairy Products
Among the records documenting husbandry, there is a group of 8 texts which register the delivery of dairy products from various herders to their final destination. These records share a common structure listing specific amounts of “butter” (i3-nun, i3) and “sour milk cheese” (ga’ara), sometimes also “milk” (ga), followed by an individual from whom they very likely originate (e.g., FTP 102). This was often a “flock master” (na-gada), like Adda (e.g., FTP 100) and Diutu (e.g., FTP 105), or a “cow herder” (unu3, e.g., WF 141). The records almost always also indicate the final addressee of the products, often a deity and among them, e.g., Ninkur (FTP 102; FTP 105), Šazu (FTP 103) and Numušda (FTP 105); once also “the palace” (e2-gal: FTP 100).
These records sometimes add a particular specification to the dairy products delivered by the herders. On the one hand, the term šu ta3 can specify both “sour milk cheese” (ga’ara) and “milk” (ga), both measured in discrete units of sila/litres (FTP 104; FTP 102) as well as according to the capacity system (WF 141; FTP 103). On the other hand, the term šu LAK-028 “…” is so far only attested once in connection to an amount of “sour milk cheese” (ga’ara), immediately followed by another amount of cheese defined as šu ta3 “sent”(?) (WF 141 o. i 2-3, ii 3-4, r. ii 2-3). Given the hierarchical nature of the lists recorded in Sumerian administrative sources, this suggests that the cheese specified as šu LAK-028 is more valuable than that specified as šu ta3. On the other hand, the two terms could also have rather an administrative nature.
Martin et al. (2001: 84) suggest that ga šu ta3 could be “a different orthography” for ga’ara šu-ta3; hence, these terms might specify different varieties of cheese. Note in this respect that according to FTP 102 r. ii 1-5 Diutu delivered three products for the deity Ninkur: 37 (litres of) “butter” (i3-nun), ⸢8⸣ (litres of) “milk sent(?)” (ga šu ta3), and 9 (litres of) “sour milk cheese” (ga’ara) (the same sequence of three products is very likely attested also in FTP 100 o. i 5-ii 3, partly restored). The mention of ga šu ta3 immediately before “sour milk cheese” (ga’ara) might also suggest that ga was considered as a different product than cheese, in that case, “milk”. Be it as it may, the exact meaning of both terms šu ta3 and šu LAK-028 remains unclear.